The creation of the 'Rio de la Plata' Viceroyship in 1776 basicaly benefitted the city of Buenos Aires.   It's prosperity derived from the livestock farming wealth of the region, but it's economic strength  lay fundamentaly in the city as a port, political centre of the  Viceroyship and headquarters of an active commercial interchange.
 In the Viceroyal territory there coexisted whites, blacks,indians and  half-breeds. Spaniards and Creoles were the 'Decent people', a label which did not necessarily imply a good economic situation, but granted rights denied to the rest.

Protected by the laws and zealous defenders of their prerogatives, they reserved political exercise and function and the possibility to aquire the prestigous category of "Neighbours".

In time the opposition between Spanish and Creoles became more acute. The Spanish occupation and the usurpation of the crown by the French,unleashed in   the 'Rio de la Plata' the events of May 1810: the open Cabildo (Council) debated replacing the Viceroy and Buenos Aires constituted a 'Junta', the majority being creoles, to take his place. From then on there began to produce deep changes in a society that started to call itself Argentina.   Influenced by ideas from the french revolution, the 'men of May' felt a strong sentiment of solidarity with  the original inhabitants of America.  They maintained that the Spanish
conquest had been an usurpation of the property and rights of Americans  and recognizing the natives as 'Primogenitor sons of America'they attempted to incorporate them through decrees, official offices, laws  and legal dispositions, as equal members of a new society.

During that decade there predominated a policy of intergration based on treaties and pacific negociations with the natives from the south. Around 1820 the growth of the cattle raising industry renewed the urgency to expand the frontier past the natural limit marked by the 'Rio Salado'.  Nevertheless the fighting between the 'Unitarios' and Federals occupied all the attention and resourses.   The funds contributed by the landowners for the maintenance of the 'Blandengues'  corps didn't improve the precarious protection of the frontier line  and the political defensive no longer seemed sufficient.   The great hordes that devastated the population during this period precipitated the violent offensive:  The campaigns of colonel Martin Rodriguez first, then Federico Rauch later and in 1833 Juan Manual de Rosas, marked the beginning of the process of extermination.

With the help of the chieftains Coyhuepan and Cachul, he resisted the insurrection of General Lavalle against governor Dorrego in 1828, assuring him of enormous prestige in Buenos Aires and which was to carry him a little later to the government of the province.  His plan as governor was to transform the 'desert',colonizing the land gained.
 He intended to install livestock farming and craftwork tasks in the different communties run by his chieftains.   Nevertheless he was only able to parcially achieve this aim.
 

The frontier extended in the extreme west and south east of the province of Buenos Aires.   The defensive line now passed through Bahia Blanca, Medano Redondo (later known as Mercedes) and Carmen de Patagones:  they had gained 2900 square leagues of land, having  suppressed the raiding parties in the region and arranged alliances with the native communities intimidated by the defeat.

From 1835 up to the battle of Caseros in 1852,Rosas governed with the maximum of public power.   The Constitution, sanctioned in 1853 and the election of Justo Jose de Urquiza as president was the beginning of the Argentine Confederation, which,  made up of thirteen provinces, during ten years confronted Buenos Aires.   The totally unprepared frontiers left the population at the mercy of the attacks by the indians that scourged the province.   The battle of Pavon in 1860 determined the dissolution of the confederation and in 1862 Bartolome Mitre was elected president of the nation.   Buenos Aires already re-
incorporated to the country, was declared by the legislature as provisional capital.   He attempted to corner the more belicose bands of the south and to stop the others with peace treaties, nevertheless the fighting on the frontiers didn't stop.

 Chocori, leader of the  Mapuches, was the principal enemy that Rosas had to face.   His territory extended from La ventana and Bahia Blanca to the confluence of the rivers Neuquen and Limay:  The  "Apple Country" where he had his principal encampments.   Ally of the Voroganos, he constantly harassed the frontier population.   He managed to escape the persecution of Rosas' troops until he was eventually taken by surprise by   Lieutenant General Francisco Sosa who had received the order from General Pacheco to surround and destroy him.   On the death of chief Chocori in 1834, his son Sayhueque succeeded him in command.   The chieftains Lucio, Juan Manuel Cachul, Juan Catriel and his sons Cipriano, Juan Jose and Marcelino, all northern Tehuelches, occupied the Tapalque stream zone near Azul.

 As Rosas' allies, his communities remained at peace until the fall of the dictator.  The southern Tehuelches that didn't participate in the raids were scattered to the south of Rio Negro.

The Ranqueles, a group of Araucanized Telhuelche origen, whose encampments were to be found deep in the pampa, southern Cordoba, San Luis and West of Buenos Aires, were hostile to Rosas as they were to the authorities that succeeded him.   The principal chieftains had their base in Leuvuco, amongst whom Yanquetruz stood out for the power he had.

Near the Ranqueles, lived a group that was under the orders of Colonel Manuel Baigorria, ex-subordinate officer of Jose Maria Paz, who on Paz's death found refuge amongst the Ranqueles adopting their ways and customs.   He led raids against Cordoba and the west of Buenos Aires until the fall of Rosas when he entered into the service of the confederation.
The Pehuenches for their part controlled the passes in the Neuquen mountain range, fulfilling the function of intermediary in the commerce of cattle. Near Masalle, west of Salinas Grande, the Vorogano community which had arrived from Chile at the beginning of the eighteenth century, were conquered in 1835 by Calfucura (Blue Stone), a powerful Araucano chief.   Since then the chieftain's power increased until he became the most important 'Toqui' (Leader) in Argentina.   He exercised
his authority over numerous chiefs and underlings heading the 'Confederation of Salinas Grandes', the most important example of organization of  native bands at that  time.

Calfucura, apart from being a strategist,  stood out due to his capabilities as a negociator.   During the Rosas government, Salinas Grandes and Buenos Aires were two centres of power with an intense interchange and on the fall of the dictator, with Buenos Aires unprotected,  Calfucura inflicted on the city and surrounding neighbourhoods, a succession of uninterrupted attacks, proving that he was at the height of his power, that was not to decline until he was defeated in the battle of San Carlos in 1872.
 

The Minister for War changed his attitude and without hesitation organized the counter-offensive: Formed in five  divisions, the troops advanced early in 1876 towards 'Tierra Adentro' (Inland Territories).

The constitutional presidencies of Mitre, Sarmiento and Avellaneda, from 1862 till 1880, marked a period in which faith
was placed in the European immigration, fundamentaly Anglo-Saxon.   The leaders of the country thought that this 'racial contribution' would improve the 'ethnic quality' and the mentality of Argentine creoles.
The model of 'civilization' was the European, and in its name other peoples considered 'barbarians' should be subdued.

The inland territory was still in the hands of its original owners but the situation became more and more difficult.   Exhaustion and hunger led communities to surrender such as the Chieftains Ramon Platero (Ranquel), Manuel Grande, Trpailao and Catriel (Tehuelche).   The power of the indians weakened, their numbers diminished due to the death of numerous warriors and faced with the Remington and illness brought by the white man they were left with few resources.

The invention of the cold storage plant, that opened the doors for the export of meat, made territorial expansion indespensable.
Chile's  pretensions in the Patagonia, also gave an urgent  character to the campaign, which had to secure Argentine
sovereignty in those lands. Based on the request formulated in the message of 1878 the National Congress sanctioned a law by which $1.600.000. was allowed for the transfer of the frontier to the rivers Negro and Neuquen.   In this manner General Roca was able to execute his plans.   During the last months of 1878 he prepared a preliminary offensive made up of small contingents  to wear out the indians with continuous attacks.  He began to modernize the troops leaving out the artillery which slowed down the operations and resulted inefficient against an extremely mobile and dispersed enemy.   He simplified the equipment, abolishing the heavy armour to give the men more freedom of movement and he increased the construction of telegraph lines to insure that orders arrived on time.

In 1878 Colonel Lavalle  first, and Lieutenant Colonel Freire later,attacked Namuncurá in his encampment which resulted inmore than200 dead.   That same year Juan Jose Catriel surrendered to Colonel Vintter, with more than 500 men, and near Laguna Malal, chief Pincen was taken by surprise and captured together with 20 of his best men.
All these were moved to the Martin Garcia island for their final confinement.   The Ranquel chief Epumer was taken prisoner in Leuvuco  by a group led by Captain Ambrosio.
The law dated 11 of October 1878 created the Governage of the Patagonia territories, the responsibility falling to Coloned Alvaro Barros. "The new Government will have as its principal objective, promote the  development of the settlements already mentioned, to further the  foundation of others to contribute to the success of the projected expedition, their existance being indespensable for the permanent establishment of the new frontiers law, once  occupied". Message to the National congress in September of 1878 by President Avellanada and General J.A.Roca.

The plan to wear out the enemy had been a success: the communities of  the Pampa and Patagonia,
completely weakened by the losses, prepared to receive the final assault.   In this context there began the auto denominated "Conquest of the Desert".  The final blow, in the slow process of extermination and cultural desarticulation that had been going on for more than half a century, was about to be delivered.

Between April and May of 1879 a lightning action took place.  Around 6000 soldiers in 5 divisions equipped with the best arms of the period, firmly advanced to 'sweep' the plains.   General Roca was in command "In this crusade against the barbarians, inspired by the purest patriotism", as he classified them in his message to his soldiers of the expeditionary forces on the 26th. of April 1879.
The first division under the command of General Roca was composed of almost 2000 men, 105 of which were indian.   They parted from Carhue on the 29th. of April 1879 and arrived in Chole-Choel on the 24th. of May.  The pacific occupation there meant, for the indians, the  loss of one of their most important bastions.   A month later Roca returned to Buenos Aires, leaving Coronel Conrado Villegas in charge of the forces.
The second division under the command of Colonel Nicolas Levalle, numbered 450 soldiers, 125 of whom were indians of Chief Trihilao.   In his advance towards Traru-Lauquen (La Pampa) he confronted the indians causing  important losses among Namuncura's men.
Eduardo Racedo was the Commander of the third division that advanced on Potahue with 1350 men, including numerous Ranquel indians and those of chief Cuyapan and Simon.   He pursued chief Baigorrita  and although he wasn't able to capture him, 500 indians were taken prisoner.
Napoleon Uriburu commanding the fourth division, left Mendoza  on the 21st. of April, heading for the confluence of the rivers Limay and Neuquen.   In the region of what is now Chos Malal he surprised the Ranquel encampments of chief Peyeuman causing numerous deaths, the chieftain amongst them.   In Rio Agrio they defeated chief Paine taking him prisoner together with 60 of his men, and in his advance he finally killed chief Baigorria.   The fourth division finished its campaign obtaining as a result 1000 indians killed and 700 prisoners.

The fifth division under Lieutenant Colonel Hilario Lagos, began his march fromTrenque Lauquen, taking 150 indian  prisoners in the  brief combats that took place in the Acahue and Calcahue hills.   In Curu-Pichi-Carjuel, Lieutenant Colonel Godoy pursued and killed the junior Captain Lemumier and his son.   The fifth division captured 629
prisoners during its expedition.

The advance of the five divisions was uncontainable.   In two months they managed to occupy the plains to beyond the rivers Negro and Neuquen, recovering 500 captives and decimating the indian communities.
Only the last of the chieftains remained free now.   According to the report from the War and Navy department in 1879, the results of the campaign were as follows:
5 Principal chieftains taken prisoner. 1 principal chieftain dead (Baigorrita).   1271 Indian lancer prisoners.   1313 indian lancers dead.  10513 common indian prisoners. 1049 indians subjugated.

The remaining weakened indians were pushed further and further south along a frontier that now extended along the rivers Neuquen and Negro.
As a result they gained 15000 leagues of land and later on they created villages and colonies on the borders of the rivers Colorado, Negro, Neuquen and Santa Cruz.   With the transfer of the frontier to the river Negro inland communications were opened up and facilitated to the Atlantic coast.   The  military telegraph network was progressively extended, and was later handed over to the civil administration.    Indian colonies were established for the survivers.

As a result, the General Conesa Fort on the river Negro was destined by decree in february 1879, as a colony for the remains of the Catriel tribe.  Colonists were to be given elements to build homes and for seeds, and farming tools.   A priest was to live in the colony and would further the convertion to catholicism and the colony would be under the orders of a military intendant, who would look after and manage the same.  Immediate occupation was anticipated for the native prisoners who were disseminated in rural villages.   Many were sent to Tucuman to work on the sugar cane plantations, or to Entre Rios.   Through hard work it was hoped they would adapt to 'civilization'.

 Although General Roca took Monsignor Antonio Espinosa with him as chaplain of the Campaign, the militarization of the indian question converted the missionaries in mere assistants to the sick and dying. Following Roca's expedition, the church intensified its function as intermediator receiving the demands of the chiefs who were still free and interceding before the government in order that the prison sentences given to the indians might be left without effect.
 

Meanwhile the indians who were able to escape previous attacks ,didn't have any fixed abode and from fear of new assaults wandered hungry in the valleys of the Cordillera.   Some managed to avoid the control of the forts and patrols and committed assaults of average importance.

The first brigade under Lieutenant Colonel Rufino Ortega carried out a brief campaign in which he faced Tacuman, son of the chief Sayhueque. He arrived at the Nahuel Huapi on the third of April, leaving in his path 23 indians dead.

The second brigade under Colonel Lorenzo Vintter, took chief Molfinqueo by surprise taking 48 prisoners, leaving  17 indians dead in the search for Sayhueque..

The third brigade under Colonel Liborio Bernal, on his way to Nahuel Huapi captured 140 indians and killed 45.   Nevertheless the principal chiefs remained free, 'Preferring to die fighting to live as slaves'  and in 1882 the last attacks took place.
 

A new campaign was being prepared.   Towards the end of 1882 almost 1400 men under the now General Villegas planned to finish off the indians once and for all.
The first brigade commanded by lieutenant Colonel Rufino Ortega held violent combats with the Ranqueles and Araucans.   The chieftain Millaman surrendered with almost 100 indians.

The lieutenant Colonel Ruibal fought against chief Queupo causing numerous deaths amongst the indians.   Chief Cayul was taken prisoner together with 80 of his men.

Major Jose Daza took Alvariito Rumay by surprise, who lost between dead and prisoners more than 40 warriors.   The junior Captains Cayupan and Nahuelpan were captured.

The first brigade left around 120 indians dead in its path and more than 500 prisoners.   The second brigade under lieutenant Colonel Godoy took part in a series of operations persuing Namuncura, Reuque-Cura and Nancuche.   The last mentioned managed to get to Chile whereas Reuque-Cura  was taken prisoner..
 The second brigade's advance left a total of 100 dead and 700 prisoners.
 The third brigade headed by Lieutenant Colonel Nicolas Palacios, fell upon Sayheque and Incayal.   Although he wasn't able to capture the chiefs, 145 indians were killed and around 500 were taken prisoner.

The Villegas campaign had expanded the frontier in 1882 to all the Neuquen province, now defended by 15 new small forts and fortifications:  364 more indians had been killed and more that 1700 were new prisoners.   On the 5th. of May 1883 General Villegas informed that:  "In the territory between the rivers Neuquen, Limay, the Andes mountain range and lake Nahuel Huapi;  there is not a single indian left, they have all been flung to the west (....) To the south of the Limay river, the only savages left are the remnants of chief Sayhueque's tribe,fleeing,poor, wretched and disillusioned."(...).

En 1884 the then Governor of the Patagonia General Wintter determined the  final attack against Sayhueque and Incayal, by that time the exhausted Namancura had surrendered with 330 of his men.   The chieftains, brought together in a big meeting, attempted to organize a desperate defence.   Equipped with firearms they went into combat pledged to fight to the death.   Various chiefs were forced to surrender.

Exhausted, demoralized and cornered in an impossible situation, Sayhueque surrendered on the 1st of january 1885 with more than 3000 men.   Many indians died in combat and the remainder fought the last battle on the 18th. of October 1884, when Incayal and Foyel faced Lieutenant Insay and were taken prisoner.  In 1886 both chiefs were taken to live in the La Plata museum together with their brothers, wives and children. Dr. Moreno, founder of the institution, attempted in this way to return their hospitality.
 
 

"And one day, when the setting sun coloured purple the majestic lobby of that building,Incayal appeared up there on the monumental stairway supported by two indians (...), he tore off his clothes, those of the invader of his fatherland, his bare chest the colour of gold, he made a gesture towards the sun and another lengthy one towards the south; spoke some unknown words and, in the twilight, the heavy shadow of the old man of the earth evaporated like the rapid evocation of a world. Incayal died that same night, happy perhaps, that the conqueror had permitted him to salute the sun of his fatherland".   Clemente Onelli on the 24th. of September 1888.
 

In the following year when they opened the doors of the museum of La Plata to the public, Incayal was no more than an ethnological curiosity labelled No. 5438.   A century later in 1994, he was buried in Tecka, in the province of Chubut.